The History of England

56 The History of Medieval Europe, Part 2

The Holy Roman Empire to the death of Barbarossa, the briefest of histories of Norway, Denmark and Spain, and the 4th Crusade. It's action packed. 

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The Investiture Crisis - Gregory VII and Henry IVth

Hildebrand, or Gregory VIIth to use his Papal name, was a reformer and Pope between 1073 and 1085. He firmly believed that the church should be independent from the influence of the material world, and unlike other Popes before and after him he was not prepared to compromise. He believed that the Papacy should be free of the influence of the Emperor, and indeed superior. 

Henry IVth meanwhile was the descendant of Otto the Great. He believed in a system based on what he saw as the ancient right of the Roman Emperor to appoint the Pope. The system of government he inherited depended on him being able to choose churchmen he could trust to help him govern. He was utterly convinced in his right to 'invest' bishops and churchmen with the symbols of their office. 

At the same time Henry IVth had to struggle with opposition from within German, w hose Princes

fought to establish their independence and liberties within the rule of the Emperor. In the struggle's most dramatic moment, beset by rebels allied with Gregory, Henry camped outside Gregory's palace in Canossa, in the robes of a penitent and pleaded to  be accepted back into the Pope's favour. Gregory was forced to accept, and by so doing betrayed the rebels, who were then crushed by Henry. The Emperor established his own anti-Pope and ejected Gregory from Rome, who dies in exile in Sicily, lamenting

I have loved justice and hated iniquity - and therefore I die in exile

Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor, 1152 - 1190

Gregory thought he had lost - but in fact the long term victory was his. The Emperor's anti-pope was never accepted, and the idea of the Emperor's supremacy over the Pope lost. Despite the outward glory of Barbarossa's reign, in fact by the end of his reign the basis of the Emperor's power was sorely eroded. Frederick lost control of the northern Italian cities. he was forced himself to prostrate himself before Pope Alexander III. He held enormous power in Germany, but at the cost of a new deal with the German nobility that accepted that they were a closed, hereditary circle, with power over their own lands, while the Emperor remained elective. Under Emperors weaker than Barbarossa, the weakness of the Emperor's real power would be exposed. 

 

Medieval Spain and La Reconquista

Spain had been largely overrun by the Arabs by the 9th Century, leaving 3 small Christian states surviving in the north - Leon in the North West, Navarre in the north and Aragorn in the north east. 

By 1210, and the map shows, Spain was once again largely Christian, though far from completely. Despite periodic setbacks as new Caliphates tried to re-establish the old Islamic dominance, such as the Almoravids and Almohads, disunity among the Arab states allowed the kingdom of Castille to lead the fight back. The fall of Toledo in 1085 and victory at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 would prove decisive. By 1252, the last Muslim kingdom of Granada was a vassal of Castille, and would finally cease to exist in 1492.

Byzantium, the 4th Crusade, and the fall of Constantinople in 1204

After the death of Emperor Manuel Comnenos it is hard to find a Byzantine Emperor of any great talent. But the event which tore the heart out of the Empire came not from the East and the Islam world, but from the Christian west. 

The evil genius is Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice. Enrico uses the fee he is owed from transporting the Crusaders  to force the crusade away from the objective of Egypt to first recapture the city of Zara. Then Alexius Angelos, a man with a claim to the throne of Byzantium, and persuades the Crusaders to help him gain the throne - for a fee of course. But once in place, he changes his mind about the fee - having looked first at the state of the Imperial treasury. As a result, the Crusaders attacked and took Constantinople, and submitted it to the traditional 3 day sack. 

Here's a contemporary account which gives a flavour of the sacking: 

How shall I begin to tell of the deeds wrought by these nefarious men ! Alas, the images, which ought to have been adored, were trodden under foot ! Alas, the relics of the holy martyrs were thrown into unclean places ! Then was seen what one shudders to hear, namely, the divine body and blood of Christ was spilled upon the ground or thrown about. They snatched the precious reliquaries, thrust into their bosoms the ornaments which these contained, and used the broken remnants for pans and drinking cups,-precursors of Antichrist, authors and heralds of his nefarious deeds which we momentarily expect. Manifestly, indeed, by that race then, just as formerly, Christ was robbed and insulted and His garments were divided by lot; only one thing was lacking, that His side, pierced by a spear, should pour rivers of divine blood on the ground.

Nor can the violation of the Great Church be listened to with equanimity. For the sacred altar, formed of all kinds of precious materials and admired by the whole world, was broken into bits and distributed among the soldiers, as was all the other sacred wealth of so great and infinite splendor.

When the sacred vases and utensils of unsurpassable art and grace and rare material, and the fine silver, wrought with gold, which encircled the screen of the tribunal and the ambo, of admirable workmanship, and the door and many other ornaments, were to be borne away as booty, mules and saddled horses were led to the very sanctuary of the temple. Some of these which were unable to keep their footing on the splendid and slippery pavement, were stabbed when they fell, so that the sacred pavement was polluted with blood and filth.

For Venice it was a triumph - they captured the right to the trade of the Empire. For Byzantium it was a disaster. 

The Empire split into a small Latin Empire and several Greek Empires - as you can see from the map below. Although the Latin Empire lasts only 57 years, and is eventually reconquered, Byzantium never recovers its strength. 

 

55 The History of Medieval Europe, Part I

From Charles Martel and the battle of Tours in 732, through Charlemagne and Otto the Great, the first installment concentrates on France, Germany and Italy and takes us to the shores of Gregory VIIth.

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The Battle of Tours, 732

It is hotly debated as to whether or not Charles Martel's victory over the Muslim armies in central France was the occasion that caused the Muslim tide to recede. Probably it's not the cause but the event that marks it, but how ever you look at it the victory of probably 30,000 Franks over 75,000 previously unstoppable Muslim forces was hugely significant. Martel had prepared and trained his soldiers for this event, and his victory founded his dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty - which led to Charles the Great, Charlemagne.

The Empire of Charlemagne

Charlemagne's Empire was a conscious attempt to re-create the glories of the Roman Empire of the west. Charlemagne put as much effort into reviving learning and spreading Christianity as he did into territorial expansion. None the less his Empire was huge, as the map shows (thanks to EB...). 

Charlemagne was crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo in 800. Charlemagne's view of this event was very much that his servant, the Pope, was adding his support to his kingship. Pope Leo was trying to establish that Emperors only became Emperors when the Pope said so. This is an argument that will run and run. 

Charlemagne becomes one of the touchstones of medieval Europe - just as he referred back to the Roman Empire,  so future kings would refer back to the glories of Charlemagne. 

Otto the Great and the Holy Roman Empire

After Charlemagne, his empire splits into three (see the small inset box map in map above). France, under  Charles the Bald and his descendants, fragments under the pressure of Viking raids and communication into a series of semi-independant states. The French king concentrates on the development of his own power within the Ile de France, and maintaining some lip service to their legal supremacy over the rest of the Western Franks. In the end, it's a strategy that pays handsome dividends under Phillip Augustus. 

The Eastern Franks choose a different route. Otto the Great took up the mantle of Charlemagne, and fought to maintain a new Roman, and Holy Empire. He defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld in 955, and finally put an end to the chaos. He brought the warring leaders of the German 'Stem Duchies under royal control. He chose a unique way of ruling this still huge and disparate empire. The Ottonian system relied on the church to be partners in ruling his empire. Prince Bishops would not try to establish dynasties, for example, to break away from the Empire. For over 100 years, Otto's system works beautifully, and his Empire dominates Germany and much of Italy. But it relied on control of church appointments and control of the Popes. Local churchmen, by and large, were happy enough - the Pope was not. 

 

 

37 12th Century Life - Village, Town and Trade

12th Century England was envied for it's fertility and yes it's climate. Any during the 12th century, the population of England and its towns and villages expand. But by and large, this is expansion without growth, and for many average income falls. 

 

37 12th C Life - Village Town and Trade

Population growth

...is difficult to calculate. But let's take the higher end estimates: 

• 1086: 2.25 million
• 1215: 5.7m 
• 1348: 7m 

And you know what happens next !

The 12th Century society and village

What defined your status in medieval England was whether you were free or unfree, and how much land you had. 

Some rough proportions: About - 

• 15% of people were free
• 40% of people were Villani (villeins) - they had substantial land (c. 30 acres) but owed service
• 35% were cottars or bordars - unfree, less land
• 10% were slaves or as near as darn it

Not all villages were the nucleated village that we think of today - but it's far and away the most common model. Each village was composed of a number of tofts (or crofts) - areas of 1/4 - 1 Acre, rented from the lord. each croft held the medieval house - typically 24 x 12 feet, 2 rooms, 5+ people and not a lot else. 

An original source - The Manor of Elton

Somewhere between 1154 and 1189, the Abbot of Ramsey had a survey completed of the Manor of Elton in East Anglia. Attached, is the porigianl text, which compared the people, income and service of the people in time of Henry 1 and present day (i.e. HenryII). I though you might be interested to see it, so I have retyped it, with some notes. 

Download Survey of the Manor of Elton

Towns and Trade

The wealth of England was based on wool - something that's not going to change for a number of centuries. During the 12th century the number of  towns grows - possibly doubles in fact, as every Norman lord tries to make a bit of cash. Other key trades included the wine trade from Rouen and increasingly Gascony in South West France, and the export of Tin from Cornwall. 

36 Magnates and Churchmen

After joining Henry II's household, William's rise was steady - but with the arrival of Richard the Lion Heart it really took off. By the time of his death he was one of the most powerful men of the realm. We also look at the church - the village priest, monasteries, and what went on under a monk's habit.

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35 12th Century Life - A Knight's Tale

Medieval England thought of it's people in 3 estates - those who fight (nobles), those who pray (churchmen) and those who work (peasants). This week in the history of England we look at the life of the nobility, through the life of William the Marshal.

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William the Marshal

William the Marshal started his career as  penniless knight and ended it as one of the greatest magnates of England. This week we look at his career as a household knight, where he makes his fortune through the Tournament. If you wan to know more about William the Marshal, you could go to this website about his life. 

Early Life

We first see William lying in the sling of a catapult in front of his father's castle. with King Stephen threatening to turn him into jam unless John Marshal surrenders his castle. John refused, and Stephen was too nice to carry out the deed. We next see William in the mesnie, or household, of the Chamberlain of Normandy, William Tancarville, as a squire, where he stayed until asked to move on probably around the age of 20. 

William was a younger son; so he had to find a way to make his fortune. He didn't have 2 beans to rub together, but had no desire to hang around his brother's castle as a 'hearth brother' - useless and impotent. So he appealed to Patrick Earl of Salisbury, his uncle, and got a job in his household. 

The big break

Patrick had to accompany Eleanor of Aquitaine to Poitou. They were ambushed by the Lusignan brothers, and it was William's courage and tenacity that gave Eleanor time to escape. Patrick was killed, and William captured. But Eleanor must have seen his heroism, and ransomed him, and gave him a job. Then, even better, she gave him a job in the household of Henry, the Young King, son of Henry IInd.

Henry the Young King

Although he was a rebellious pain in the royal backside, as were most of the Angevins, Henry had a glowing reputation at the time for his good looks and chivalry. He was a big fan of the Tournament, and William the Marshal became his closest friend and almost a team manager. The Tournament was the making of William Marshal. He reckoned to have captured over 500 knights, and toured all over France taking part. He even had a partnership with a Flemish mate, Roger de Gaugy who worked with him in tournaments, and the kitchen clerk, Wigain, who kept the score and sold off the proceeds. The tournament turned William into a poor household knight at the edge of things to the confidente of the heir to the throne and relatively comfortable financially.

The 12th Century Tournament

This image comes from a 14th Century document, but it's still relevant since it shows the main event of the 12th Century tournament, the melee. 2 large groups of heavily mailed men charge at each other on horses and try to capture each other for the ransom. The audience cheers them on and picks it's favourites. 

The tournament would be thrown by a lord, who would set up a tournament village on the edge of a town. The lists would be created round the edge - where each combatant's squire would keep 3 extra lances. Hired mercenaries would protect a roped off safe area called the recet, where frightened or wounded knights could cower.

A bugle would sound, and both sides would charge at each other. This was the melee. The event could go on all day. Philip of Flanders was notorious for tipping up late and joining in when everyone else was tired, and sweep up loads of captures. William and Henry used a variation of the same trick - they would be there from the start, but would hold back from the shock of the first charge, and so keep themselves relatively fresh. 

At this stage the Joust was a relatively small component of the tournament. It was allowed - often the start of the melee was delayed while the younger knights were allowed to joust with each other to win a bit of early glory, before the more experienced knights took them to the cleaners later on. 

In the12th Century, the roots of the Tournament were still strongly based in the military training of young knights, and had not become a defining characteristic of a knight. Henry II banned the tournament on his English land. But by  14th Century they would become increasingly elaborate  and closely linked to the ideals of the perfect knight. 

34 Anarchy III - Resolution

Stephen and Matilda fought themselves to a standstill, until the Empress tires of the struggle, and essentially leaves the stage around 1149. Many of her key supporters die - Miles of Gloucester and Robert of Gloucester - weakening her resolve and strength. Thereafter her son Henry picks up the baton. But the Treaty of Westminster in 1153 which brings the Anarchy to a close is as much a result of exhaustion as victory

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 The Angevins conquer Normandy

Stephen's capture in 1141 had a big impact in Normandy. Most of the Barons  decide to defect, and by 1145 Geoffrey is officially and safely the new Duke of Normandy.

The Fall of Oxford

In 1142, the Empress was trapped in Oxford castle, and after 3 months of seige provisions were running low. Matilda managed to escape through a gate with 4 companions and, wearing white against rthe snow, she escaped to Abingdon. But Oxford fell to Stephen. 

Revolt

Stephen doesn't manage his barons well; he arrested Geoffrey de Mandeville and Ranulf without warning, and conseuqntly both revolt. Geoffrey dies in 1144, but Ranulf and Hugh Bigod remain a thorn in Stephen's side

Henry Fitz Empress enters the fray

Henry launched expeditions in 1142, 1147 and 1153. But it's only in 1153 that, now Duke of Anjou and Normandy, he brings a force worth having. Despite this, 1153 is far from a great success for him millitarily. 

The Treaty of Westminster, 1153

The peace comes about because: 

• The barons are sick of war - they make their own peaces with each other, and refuse to prosecute the war as their leaders would like
• Eustace, Stephen's son dies
• Everyone is tired. 

Under the treaty, Stephen reigns til he dies - and Henry will be his heir. Here below is a copy of the treaty itself. 

Download The Treaty of Westminster 1153

Anarchy what Anarchy?

Historians nowadays stress the lack of anarchy rather than the extend of it. It seems that what we are really seeing is a bit of score settling, and then governance simply becomes more distributed, more exercised by the Barons than the King. England is still governed. But in the war zone, life is indeed very probably hell on earth but then hts what war is like. None the less, there are a mass of illegal taxes, such as the 'tenserie', protection money, and illegal castles that Henry II would have to deal with. 

33 Anarchy II - Matilda's Big Chance

1141 was a turbulent year in England's history. The Civil war had reached an early deadlock, dramatically broken by the capture of the king at the Battle of Lincoln, and the defeat of the Empress at Winchester.

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Ranulf of Chester defects to the Empress

Stephen had serious hacked Ranulf off by giving Carlisle to David King of Scots. He'd granted Lincoln in compensation, but demanded a Royal garrison. Plus, Stephen had built up the power of the Beaumonts, just as a counter- weight to any defection from Ranulf. So in 1141, Ranulf seized Lincoln, and joined the Empress. 

The defection made a big change to the Angevin's fortunes - in reality they'd been very disappointed by the number of Barons that had joined their cause. Ranulf gave them a vast block of land in the North West.

The Battle of Lincoln, 2nd February 1141

Lincoln is the only straightforward pitched battle of the Anarchy. And if Stephen had more of a brain there wouldn't have been any battles at all. The Angevin party, accompanied by a large contigent of Welsh with Ranulf, was probably considerably larger than Stephen's army. He should have withdrawn. But maybe spurred on by the memory of his father's disgrace, he decided to stay and fight. Despite some early success as the royal cavalry routed the Welsh on the wings, the Angevin counter attack drove the king's supporters from the field. Still Stephen refused to fly, was surrounded and after figjhting bravely was over whlemed and captured. 

Matilda Fluffs it.

This was Matilda's big chance. Most barons accept that she's now in control, Henry of Blois comes over to her side, and Winchester opens the treasury to her. But she fails to win over London, and generally alienates everyone she can find. London rises up in fury, and throws her out. She is forced to flee without even having time to finish supper.

The Rout of Winchester

Henry of Blois again transfers his allegiance, back to Stephen, and besieges the Empress's castle at Winchester. And when the Empress comes down with her army to get it back, Queen Matilda and William of Ypres bring Stephen's army down and trap the Empress. Things get desperate. The Empress breaks out, but Robert of Gloucester is not so lucky, and is captured. So at the end of 1141, Stephen is released from captivity in exchange for Robert, and the game is back on. 

32 When Christ and his Saints Slept

'...they said openly that christ and his saints slept'. This stunning phrase gives us an image of devastation hat led to the period being called 'The Anarchy'. In this episode, we look at how the Stephen came to power and how the whole thing started.

Click and play podcast: 32 When God and his Saints slept

 

Download podcast 32 When God and his Saints slept
 

Stephen seizes the throne

 

Henry had made everyone swear allegiance to Empress Matilda. But clearly everyone hand their fingers crossed behind their backs at the time, because Stephen really doesn't find it that hard to take the throne. Basically, no one wanted a woman on the throne, and no-one wanted to have anything to do with the Empress's husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of the traditional enemy Anjou. And anyway, the Empress is too busy invading Southern Normandy to claim the throne.

So Stephen was crowned by The Archbishop of Canterbury in December 1135. Meanwhile, the Norman Barons firstly asked Stephen's brother Theobald to be Duke - and then opt for Stephen when they hear that he's seized the throne in England.  

The Early Years

The first few years are actually a good deal smoother than they were for Henry and Rufus. Stephen bases his power on alliance with the Beaumont family, Robert of Leicester and Waleran of Meulan, and removes three bishops who he fears are plotting against him. 

But Stephen fails to bind two key men to him - Robert of Gloucester and David, King of Scots. And in 1139, things start going wrong. Robert and David declare for Empress Matilda. Geoffrey invades Normandy.

Click here to see the coronation charter that Stephen signed up to.  Download The Charter of Liberties of Stephen 1136

The Battle of the Standard, 1138

Fought outside Northallerton, David King of Scots and 26,000 men invaded England to make Northumbria Scottish and advance the cause of the Empress Matilda. After a victory at Clitheroe, David was faced by an English Army, grouped around a hill, on top of which sat the English Standard. Most of the English knights dismounted and faced the Scots in a mixed line of knights and Longbowmen. The Galweigan charge was broken by the archers, and the resulting English counter attack was unstoppable. The resulting treaty of Durham in 1139 was generous to the Scots - but by this stage, Stephen needed a quiet northern border. 

The trouble is, the treaty gives Carlisle to the Scots. The super-powerful Ranulf of Chester felt that belonged to him. 

The Empress escapes from Arundel

Robert of Gloucester and Empress Matilda times their revolt poorly. By the time they arrived at Arundel, David had been defeated, and Matilda was trapped by Stephen in Arundel. But like an idiot, Stephen allows his brother Henry to talk him into letting Matilda go. Oh Please. 

South West England becomes Angevin

Robert of Gloucester was joined by Miles of Gloucester, Reginald of Cornwall and Brian fitzCount, lord of Wallingford. Together, their power in the South West was formidable. With revolts by Nigel in Ely, and Dover castle held against the King, the battle lines were drawn. 

 

 

 

 

31 Henry I - Normandy and the Succession

Henry was a Norman king like any other - Normandy was in his blood. For 30 years, he controlled the diplomatic game to keep Normandy in the Empire. The one thing he couldn't control was the succession. When William the Atheling died in the disaster of the White Ship, William was left with a daughter - and no woman had ever been the English monarch.

31 Henry I - Normandy and the Succession

Dramatis Personae - see the previous post here

The Struggle for Normandy: Round 1, 1109 - 1113

A bit chaotic. Louis VI started it off demanding Gisors. Henry's friend Theobald of Blois organised a distracting raid into Brie, Henry captured and imprisoned Robert of Belleme, and bought off Fulk of Anjou by promising his son in marriage to Fulk's daughter. Left on his own Louis gave in and made peace.

Round 2, 1115 - 1119, and the Battle of Bremule

This time Theobald started the trouble, by killing a friend of the Louis's. Henry had to come to Theobald's aid, and off it all went again. Fulk and Baldwin of Flanders also joined the fight against Henry. This time, a group of Norman nobles also joined in, and William Clito was declared Duke of Normandy. But again, they could make no real headway against the Norman castles. In 1119, Henry was defeated at the battle of Alencon by Fulk, but despite that things turn out well. Because Fulk wanted to go on crusade - and gave up his struggle, in return for Henry's promise observe the peace while he was away.

Louis meanwhile was defeated at the Battle of Bremule. 400 of Louis's household knights were defeated by 500 of Henry's, and William Clito and Louis fled back to France. William captured 140 knights - and ransomed those he could, and blinded (yes, blinded) the rest.

Interruption - The White Ship, 1120

The death of Henry's only son and heir in 1120 was a personal and nationbal tragedy. William Atheling died when his ship hit rocks off Barfleur. No one dared to tell Henry - until a young boy was brave enough to do the task, Henry fell to the ground, until being led away to his personal chambers.

Round 3, 1123-1124 and the Battle of Bourgtheroulde

Fulk stirred up trouble with Henry's Norman barons, in particular Waleran, Count of Meulan. Henry was furious - Waleran was of the Beaumont family, who had been showered with grants of land in reward for the loyalty of the father, Robert de Beaumont. Waleran was defeated by Henry's lieutenants - either Ralph of Bayeux or William of Tancarville - in another battle between household knights. Now for the next 10 years, Henry could relax a little more.

The Succession

Henry's solution was radical - his daughter Matilda. He got his barons to swear alleigance to her as the next monarch in 1127. Then he went even further - marrying her to Geoffrey of Anjou in 1128. This was radical - the Normand and Angevins were fierce enemies. Despite further oath takings, more than a few would have suspected trouble.

Death

Henry died in 1135. He came home from hunting, ate too many lampreys, and so died one of England's most successful monarchs. Not necessarily the nicest, but an effective king and a reformer of justice and royal governance.

 

30 Henry I - Barons, Warfare and Wales

The fight with Robert gave Henry a great chance to replace the old conquest families with his own men, and particularly in the Welsh Marches.  And this week we also do a catch up on what’s changed in warfare since Anglo Saxon times, and look at the situation that faced Henry in Normandy

30 Henry I - Barons, Warfare and Wales

Wales and England in the reign of Henry

Gruffydd ap Cynan of Gwynedd and Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of Powys, the princes of the Welsh kingdoms mainly held their own through the reign. In Southern Wales, the Norman marcher lords extended their control, while Gilbert fitz Richard conquered land in Ceredigion. Henry made sure that the old marcher lords were replaced by his men; the families of FitzOsbern and Montgomery had gone, replaced by the de Clares and Robert of Caen, the Earl of Gluocester.

The Marriage of Matilda

At the age of 7, Henry’s only legitimate daughter was betrothed to Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor. 5 years later in 1114 they were formally married. It was a brilliant and prestigious match for Henry of England.

The balance of power in northern France

Matilda’s marriage completed Henry’s series of defensive relationships. In the English corner were:

The Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V: to the east, embroiled in struggles with the Count of Flanders. The relationship delivered less than Henry might have hoped, but did help distract Louis VI of France until Henry V’s death in 1125.

Blois: to the south east of Normandy. Theobald of Blois needed English help to avoid being crushed by France to her north. And Theobald’s mother was Adela, Henry’s sister, so they were family. Theobald had 2 younger brothers; Stephen of Blois was heavily enriched with lands in England and married Matilda of Boulogne, the heiress to Boulogne. Then there was Henry of Blois, Abbot of Glastonbury from 1126 and Bishop of Winchester from 1129.

Brittany: To the south west, the Breton Count Conan III was a vassal of Henry’s

Ranged against Henry were:

Louis VI of France (the Fat) (1108 – 1137)

William Clito (1102-1128) son of Robert Curthose

Fulk V of Anjou: To the south Fulk also inherited Maine and refused to pay homage to Henry I in respect of Maine as was traditional. Mainly hostile to Normandy though a bit on-off. Fulk left for a crusade in 1119-1120, and then again in 1127. In 1129 he married Melisende of Jerusalem and became king of Jerusalem. His son Geoffrey would marry Henry’s daughter Matilda, and would be the father of Henry II, the first of the Angevin Kings of England.

Flanders: The history of Flanders and their attitude to Normandy is chequered, but is mainly hostile. Baldwin VII (1111-1119) was hostile; then Charles the Good (1119-1127) was less so, before being murdered while at prayer. Then William Clito became Count for 1 year (1127-8), before being succeeded by Thierry, who had no quarrel with Henry I.

29 England in the reign of Henry I

After the initial struggle for succession and baronial revolt, England itself was pretty peaceful during Henry’s reign. The church & state debate needed fixing. And Normandy was a constant battle, and so big taxes were needed to pay for war. Henry was an efficient man, and many themes that lead to modern Government start in his reign.

 

29 England in the reign of Henry I

The Lay Investiture Crisis

It was English (and indeed European) custom for the King or Emperor to give a new church leader - Bishop or Abbot - his new job. This meant not only deciding who should get the job, but also to invest thgem with the symbols of their office - the Ring and Staff. After all, the King was divinely blessed at coronation, and therefore effectively the most important priest. The Pope and Church reformers believed that this was all wrong - only the church could appoint into religious positions.

in 1107, Henry broke the deadlock. Henceforth, the new appointee  would do homage for his temporal stuff only - his lands and so on - and the Pope would do the rest. It made little practical difference in the short term. The king still decided who got the job. But Kings had given up their claim to divine right. In 1122, this agreement formed the basis of the Concordat of Worms, which made peace between Pope and Holy Roman Emperor.

Royal Administration, Justice and Common Law

The Royal Household begins to grow, and administration starts the long haul towards modernity. In Henry's reign, we see the use of the Chief Justiciar, one for England and one for Normandy. They are basically a Country Manager for all day to day business.

And we see a more complex royal household, in 4 main departments, that would develop into the English Government departments of the future. So theres:

• The Hall: led by the Steward. Deals with all aspects of food and drink for the King and his household
• The Chamber: led by the Chamberlain. All the Kings secret stuff. Also, the treasury's still kept under the bed - so all financial stuff too
• The Chapel: Led by the Chaplain or Chancellor. Also dealt with anything written - writs and so on
• Outside: The Constable - everything military and hunting

The Exchequer makes it's first appearance. This is a chequered table, used with an abacus to help complete the accounts of the sheriffs.

And travelling royal justices make their first appearance. They apply royal law that is applied to all, no matter the local custom - i.e. commonly applied - so the start of English Common Law.

 

28 The Lion of Justice

The youngest of William the Conqueror’s sons, Henry, wasted no time shedding tears for his brother Rufus. He got himself crowned, anointed and blessed. The next 6 years were to be dominated by the struggle with his other brother for control.

Download 28 The Lion of Justice

Click and play podcast: 28 The Lion of Justice

How to get a throne in Norman England

1. Be a member of the royal family 
2. Don't worry about your brother's body - someone else will deal with it
3. Take control of the treasury in Winchester
4. Get some big families on your side, find yourself a Bishop and get crowned, annointed and blessed.

Which is what Henry did. One of the families that helped him were the Beaumonts, who were to become heavily rewarded over his reign.

The Struggle for supremacy

Robert Curthose Vs Henry follows a remarkably similar path to that of Rufus Vs Curthose. But the outcome is rather more decisive and final.

• First Robert has a hack at Henry. He does OK - seduces Henry's fleet,  outflanks him, at it means that at the Treaty of Alton Henry comes to terms, including paying an annual stipend of £2,000. Round 1 to Robert.
• Henry attacks Robert's supporters in England - either talking their lands (Robert of Belleme, William of Mortain) or scaring them so they come over to his side (William de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey). Henry gets the support of the counties around Normandy - Maine, Flanders, Brittany. Round 2 to Henry.
• Henry gets more agressive, Robert panics and gives up his stipend. Henry brings an army to Normandy in 1104, 1105 and 1106. And in 1106, the brothers meet at Tinchebrai, outside William of Mortain's castle,  for the final showdown.
• The Battle of Tinchebrai is an unusual example for the period of a decisive battle. Henry dismounts most of his knights, but places Helias of Maine with a sneaky cavalry contingent out of sight. He has the usual 3 'battles', led by Ranulf of Bayeux, Robert Beaumont and William of Warrene. Robert's 2 captain's are William of Mortain and Robert of Belleme. It doesn't take long - about an hour. Robert orders William of Mortain to attack 'Crusader style' - big cavalry charge, couched lances. But Henry's line does not break. Meanwhile, Helias hears the noise and attacks, hitting Robert of Belleme's flank. Belleme's heart isn't in it - he runs and it is effectively all over. Game, set and match to Henry.

Robert Curthose spent the rest of his life in prison, until his death in 1134. William of Mortain eventually manages to escape, and dies as a monk in Bermondsey. Belleme survives to fight another day. Robert CUrthose leaves a son - William Clito, just 4, who has a part to play . . .

Good bye to Edgar Atheling

Our old friend Edgar fought at Tinchebrai on Robert's side. He is immediately pardoned by Henry, and that's the last time he plays a significant role. He appears in Scotland in 1120, and probably dies shortly after 1125. He doesn't seem to leave any family, which is probably a good thing - the succession to the English throne is complicated enough as it is.

27 Hateful to his People and Odious to God

Rufus fell out big time with Anselm, his Archbishop of Canterbury. Unusually for Medieval Man he was impious and irreverent. Meanwhile, the Welsh struggled for independence against Norman tyranny, and make a better fist of it than the English. This week in the History of England Podcast we get to 1100, the end of William Rufus's reign

27 Hateful to his People and Odious

Church and State

“Yesterday I hated him with great hatred, today I hate him with yet greater hatred and he can be certain that tomorrow and thereafter I shall hate him continually with ever fiercer and more bitter hatred"

Such are the words attributed to Rufus, talking about his Archbishop of Canterbury, Anselm. Thinking he was on his deathbed, William had forced Anselm to take the job, thrusting the ring onto his finger despite Anselm's objections. They say 'Marry at haste, repent at leisure', and the same might apply to choosing Archbishops. Top tip for you all out there choosing Archbishops.

In the end, Anselm fled into exile, and implored his Pope not to send him back to England; he did not return until Rufus was dead. At it's most fundamental, the argument was about the church's desire to have more independence from the state, in accordance with canon law but in stark contravention of English custom. It's the start of a long road.

Scotland

At the start of the reign, Malcolm Canmore was looking to move his border down from the Tweed to the Tyne (see the map here). Afterall, the inhabitants on Lothian, Cumbria and Northumbria were very much the same kind of people, both ethnically and linguistically. By the end of the reign, Malcolm had been killed by Robert Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, and Rufus had restored Malcolm's line in the face of a celtic backlash from Donald Bane.

It was Rufus also who definitively brought Cumbria into England. He expelled Dolfin, son of Gospatrick, built a castle at Carlisle, and brought English settlers in to cement the deal.

Wales

The Welsh borders were different - when you crossed the border the language and people changed. Up to 1094 the Normans looked as though they were going to take over Wales pretty much as they had England. The Welsh didn't help themselves with constant warfare between the Welsh Princedoms, but in the end they were made of sterner stuff than the English.

In 1093, Robert of Rhuddlan lost his head - it ended up stuck on a spike on a Welsh pirate ship. Then in 1094 a chronicler reported:

'In this year the Britons being unable to bear the tyranny and injustice of the French, threw off the rule of the French and they destroyed their castles in Gwynedd and inflicted slaughter upon them'.

Cadwgan ap Bleddyn and Gruffydd ap Cynan led the uprising that freed Credigion, Gwynedd, Powys and parts of Deheubarth. Gwynedd would become the centre of Welsh resistance for the next 200 years.

The revolt of 1094-1099 was the first serious setback for the Normans. Marcher lords such as Hugh of Chester and Phillip de Briouze viewed the Welsh kingdoms with predatory eyes, with conflict never far away.

 The Death of Rufus

Famously, William Rufus died in the New Forest just like his older brother Richard. His companion Walter Tirel aimed at a stag and hit a king. William broke the shaft, but toppled forward and in so doing thrust the arrow deep into his lung. Brother Henry took one look, and legged it at full speed to Winchester, to claim the treasury and the Crown before Robert Curthose could return. walter had run for the continent. So it was left to a bloke called Purkis to load the King's body onto a cart and take it to Winchester for burial. Conspiracy theories abound - was this a plot by Henry to kill William and claim the throne ? I think not - I prefer the cock up theory of history by and large.

26 William Rufus, Normandy and the First Crusade

William Rufus was a flamboyant, red faced, pudgy and irreverant bloke, but none the less his father's favourite son. So Dad tipped him the wink and he left the death bed to take the throne of England from his older brother. And spent his reign trying to re-unite England and Normandy again.

26 William Rufus, Normandy and the 1st Crusade

William Rufus

William's reign is dominated by 4 themes:

1. William's main aim - get Normandy away from big brother
2. Tax the living daylights out of the English so I can get Normandy back
3. Keep the Scots and Welsh quiet so I can get Normandy back
4. Stop the church from taking away customary royal rights.

This episode we'll talk about the first two. And a bit about the First Crusade, for no good reason.

A brief guide to medieval taxation

Rufus and the first Chief Justiciar of England, Ranulph Flambard, used all the means at their disposal to raise money.

• Raise a geld - the Danes have gone, but that's no reason not to raise a geld or two
• Revenue from the Royal Demesne lands
• Turn the old English dues into cash - raise the Fyrd, then get them to give you money rather than fight
• Feudal dues: Wardships - take under-age orphaned heirs into the Royal care, and make money from their estates. Or sell the wardship to highest bidder.
• Charge your vassals a fee for getting married
• Scutage - get money from your vassals instead of getting them to fight
• Relief - medieval inheritance tax

Norman kings steered a very fine line. Charge too much for all this stuff and you have a baronial revolt on your hands. William got away with it - but was always close to that line.

Getting Normandy back

Rufus first had to fight Robert Curthose off - which he successfully did in 1088. And from then on he was on the offensive. But despite campaigns in 1091 and 1094, he never really had Robert on the run. Until in 1096, Robert heard Pope Urban II's call to the Crusade. William loaned him £10,000, and had control of Normandy until Robert came back. Pretty soon, William had re-asserted Ducal control over the baronage that Robert had lost.

The First Crusade

The First Crusade affected England relatively lightly - though there are records of a fleet of ships that took an active part. But the largest part of the Crusade came from Northern France and Germany.

Alexios Comnenus was in fact probably pretty horrified when 35,000 hairy northerners turned up in Byzantium. And in fact, the Crusades did little for east-west relations. Alexios really fancied a load of gold to pay for mercenaries to regain lands for Byzantium. Instead, he ended up with 4 Frankish kingdoms in the Holy Land, who he understood less that he did the Turks.

The march to the Holy land took the Crusaders first to Nicea, which they regained for the Emperor. At Dorylaeum, the Sultan of Rhum got his taste of western knights, and his arrows simply bounced off their armour. So he stood aside and waved them through.

At Antioch, the Crusaders faced a challenge they looked like losing. Camped in front of walls they couldn't properly blockade, they boiled in the heat, without sufficient food, while a Muslim relief army approached. But sneakiness won the day, when they bribed a Turkish captain to let them in. They slaughtered the inhabitants, Muslim and Christian alike. Then, inspired by the Holy Lance found within the walls, they put the Muslim army to the sword.

By then many leaders had left - Stephen of Blois for example. Their original army of 35,000 was down to 12-15,000. But on they marched to Jeruslaem. Their chances looked slim. The Turks had denuded the land around of food, and poisoned the wells. Jerusalem was a massive fortress. Another army approached from Egypt. But despite the odds, the desperate Crusader assault worked, and on 13th July 1099 Jerusalem was in their hands. The Crusaders celebrated with another orgy of destruction and murder that was to prevent any chance of working with the local Muslim population. Baldwin was crowned the first King of Jerusalem.

The final stroke was the Battle of Ascalon, where again a Muslim army was defeated, and many Crusaders came on home. Among them was Robert Curthose. Robert had a good crusade, involved in all the major battles, and there was even a rumour that he was offered the crown.

The First Crusade was massively helped by Turkish divisions, and really shouldn't have had much chance of success. It established 4 rather unlikely western kingdoms in the Levant that were to be the focus of 8 more crusades until the final fall of Acre in 1291.

25 Death of a Conqueror

The last years of William the Conqueror's reign were mainly the meat and drink of the Norman King - beating off other feudal lords, keeping your nobles down, trying not to let your sons eat you. But plus there was, of course, the super-famous Domesday Book. This week at the History of England podcast we end the reign of the Conqueror

25 Death of a Conqueror

Family troubles

William had three sons that survived him - Robert, William and Henry. Robert cut up rough - he was bored, and wanted his authority now; he was worried that his Dad preferred William, and might cut him out. In 1079 his rebellions almost led to patricide, but Robert recognised his father at the last moment and drew back. Robert and his father were reconciled, and Robert was again recognised as the Co-Duke of Normandy. But in 1083 Robert took off again, and was not to be reconciled before William's death.

Domesday Book

A lot of ink has been spilt over Domesday book. So I won't spill a lot. Just to say, that Domesday was probably created because of:

• Money: William wanted to know how much money he could get from taxing his nobles
• War: in 1085, England was threatened with invasion by Cnut of Denmark. William realised he needed to know exactly who owed him men, and how many.
• Landholding: There had been a landholding revolution. Here was a good chance to make sure the King knew who had got what.

Now you too can play around with Domesday! The PASE wesbite allows you to find out who owned your town in 1087. Be patient, it takes a bit of working out, but it's a superb website.

Death of a Conqueror

William burst in 1087 while attacking Mantes. He died at Caen, and then he burst again when they tried to squeeze him into his coffin. Before he went he gave Normandy to Robert, England to William Rufus, and £5,000 to Henry to buy himself a place of his own. So what to say about the man who brought my favourite English period to an end? It's impossible not to admire him isn't it? Certainly not a couch potatoe, anyway. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle again proves it's worth with a very good summary - so click here and look at the relevant entry. But here are a few snippets.

‘The King granted his lands on hard terms . . . the king let it go into the hands of the man who bid the most . . . nor cared how sinfully the reeve got it from poor men. They raised unjust tolls, and many other injustices they did which are hard to recount’

and not just that;  ‘The king and the head men loved and loved too much the greed for gold and silver and cared not how sinfully it was obtained’.

On the other hand: ‘He was mild with good men who loved God and over all measure hard with men who spoke against his will.’ ... ‘Good peace he made in this land, so that a man of any account might fare over the kingdom with a bosom full of gold unmolested; and no man dared kill another, even if he had done much evil to him.’

Let me leave the last word to my guide and mentor in these years, Frank Barlow. I think he gets it right when he said:

‘ William never gives the impression of having been born out of the proper time. He was no barbarian leader. Neither was he a statesman. He had learned the art of government in the hardest school, so that a conquered country groaned under his rule but could not withhold a grudging admiration’

24 Revolt of the Earls

It took William the Conqueror a few more years until he felt safe from the English. But when the Revolt of the Earls collapsed in 1075, English revolution was over - and we are into the continual cycle of feudal rebellion. This week in the History of England we've also got a bit of church stuff, and the pain of trying to rule a cross channel empire

24 Revolt of the Earls

Hereward the Wake

When I was at school we learnt that Hereward was a folk hero. We heard how he hid in the marshes of the Fens, and how he goaded and outwitted the stupid Normans. Sadly, the Historians then got their hands on it, found out the truth and told us- and it's a bit more prosaic.

However, Hereward did indeed maintain a rebellion in the Fens. His hideout was at Ely, which at the time was an island. You have to work quite hard to make this map work for you, but the darkest brown stuff is water, and Ely is the reddish spot in the middle.

Anyway, Hereward teamed up with Svein Estrithson for a while. Then Earls Edwin and Morcar broke free from William - Edwin was killed by his followers, but Morcar made it to Hereward. This made William look up a noticed. He came with his Army; he built a causeway across the fens to Ely.  And Hereward ran for it, and away into legend.

 

The revolt of the Earls

The Earls concerned are Roger of Montomergy (Marcher lord, Welsh border) and Ralph de Gael, earl of East Anglia. They talked Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, into joining them - but he then got cold feet, and spilt the beans to William. He would have expected forgiveness - he didn't get any. He was slung into prison and next year had his head cut off. So died the last English Earl.

The revolt fell apart. Ralph de Gael was met and by Odo of Bayeux and he fled, leaving his wife to face the music. They both end up in their Breton lands at Dol, where William tries to capture them, but is fought off. Roger Montgomery is met by Bishop Wulfstan (1008-1095) and Walter de Lacy and he surrendered and was put in prison. So the English have made a choice - they'd rather a Norman king than anarchy.

Lords of the Marches

William normally gave land out in widely distributed holdings, scattered around the country.  But along the borders he took a different approach  - he created large consolidated land holdings. His aim was to create lords who had the strength and resources both to defend the borders against the Scots and Welsh; and also take the offensive.

 Let me give you an examplke. These maps have been produced using the superb 'Propospography of Anglo Saxon England' (PASE for short) by the way - though any errors are entirely my idiocy. Anyway, first you have Odo of Bayeux. You can just about see that many of Odo's holdings are scattered throughout the Midlands; most of the manors would not adjoin. In Kent, it's slightly different. William saw the route to Normandy as being strategically important. So he gave Odo, as Earl of Kent, consolidated holdings, protecting the route home. The next is the Earl of Chester and then it's Roger of Montgomery. You can see how consolidated their land holdings are.

The strategy works very well in Wales, not quite so well initially in the North. But he does create a ghroup of remarkably powerful lords; he gives all his rights and powers, with the exception of trying men for treason. Effectively these men are mini kings. That will cause some problems for England in the future - but for the moment it's necessary.

23 William the Conqueror and the subjugation of England

After 1066 William the Conqueror set about ruling his new kingdom. The impression we get is that England rolls over rather easily - where was the heroic struggle we might have expected? This isn't the full story; the Conqueror spent the first years stamping out forest fires all over the place. But there is some truth in it - English resistance lacked the leadership it needed to be effective. We find out what happened in the History of England podcast.

 

23 William the Conqueror and the subjugation of the English

Why did England fall to William so easily?

Well, a few reasons really.

• There were no credible leaders
• The leaders they did have were self serving and not much to write home about
• The Normans built castles - lots of them
• The cream of England's warriors had been decimated by the 3 battles of 1066
• Some of them thought they could work with William. Ha.

The new Aristocracy

By the end of William's reign 54% of the Aristocracy were Norman. In some areas it was almost a total wipeout. There are only 2 Thegns who held significant estates directly from the Conqueror. A whitewash.

 The Harrying of the North

The conseqences of William the Conqueror's rampage lasted for well over 15 years, with the entire vale of York laid waste. I promised some passges from one of the Chroniclers, Roger of Hoveden. By and large, Roger is a dull chap, but the Harrying caught his imagination.

'William...swore he would pierce the whole of northumbria with a single spear... (he) did not cease throughout the whole winter to ravage it, slay the inhabitants and commit many other acts of devastation.

... a famine prevailed to such a degree that...men ate human flesh and that of horses, dogs and cats; some persons went as far as to sell themselves into slavery... some departed from their native country into exile.

It was dreadful to see human corpses rotting in the houses, streets and high roads, and as they reeked with putrefaction, swarming with worms, and sending forth a horrid stench; for...there were not suifficient left to inter them.Between York and Durham there was not one inhabited town; the dens of wild beasts and robbers ...were alone to be seen.

You get the picture. It was a difficult time.

22a Questions about Marriage, Law, Trade and Language

Here's a supplementary episode to answer some questions sent in - they were hard but fun, so keep the questions coming! Sadly, my brother was over so we did it in a different format. It rambles somewhat. But hope it at least answers the questions.

22a Questions about Marriage, Law, Trade and Language

 

Also let me recommend a book about language - 'The Adventure of English' by Melvyn Bragg. It's a brilliant book, really easy to read.

On a slightly different topic, if you want to understand why the English behave as they do, then there is only one book to read amongst the plethora of books on the subject. It's by Kate Fox, and it's called 'Watching the English' . Suddenly, I understood it all, at last.

22 1066 and Goodbye to all That

1066 was a year that changed a lot of things - though not as much as you might think. 3 experienced war leaders fought for control of England - and we all know who won, so no need to worry about plot spoilers. The History of England podcast takes us up the coronation of William at Westminster Abbey, Christmas day 1066

22 1066 and Goodbye to all That

Why William, Harold and Harold claimed the throne

Harold Godwinsson claimed the throne by an ancient elective principle. He was nominated by Edward the Confessor, and appointed king by the Witan. Lets hear it for the poor of the people! William the Bastard claimed the throne by hereditary right through his Great Aunt Emma of Normandy. Plus he said that Harold had sworn an oath to help his claim. Harold Hadradaa said that Magnus I of Norway and Harthacnut has agreed that whoever died last should get England, back in 1040. But when Harthacnur died first, Edward the Confessor took the throne instead.

What happened

I'm only going to do a simple coverage on the blog - There are literally a billion websites (well quite a few anyway) that will tell you all you want to know, if you want more information or want to read about it . The BBC's is comprehensive and straightforward - cleck here if you want to look at it. You can listen to Stanley Holloway's version of events at Hastings as well, on YouTube here. Or find out more about Fulford at a very dedicated website here.

So the main events . . .

• 6th January: Harold is hastily crowned King in Westminster Abbey
• Spring and summer: Harold gets an army and Navy together and waits for the axe to fall. Nothing happens. William is in Normandy, arguing with his barons, persuading the Pope to help out, building ships and then, once he's done all that waiting for the wind to change so that he can sail over.
• 8th September: Harold has to disband his army and navy - no more food, everyone needs to go back to the fields. The very same day, Hadrada and Tostig land in Northumbria. Ach, bummer.
• 12th September: William sails - but gets pushed back into port
• 20th September: the Battle of Fulford: Earls Edwin and Morcar do their best, but it's not good enough, and they are defeated by Hadrada.
• ?21st - 25th: Harold absolutely canes it up to the north, about 185 miles in 4 days. The Vikings are luxuriating in their victory, are caught unawares and comprehensively defeated at the Battle of Stamfordbridge. Yay.
• 28th September: William lands at Pevensey and starts to knock up a castle. Harold absolutely charges down to London with his men, but then, sensibly, waits for a week in London getting himself together, orders the local Fryds to assemble. Then it's off to the seaside.
• 14th October: The Battle of Hasting. Boo. They think it's all over...

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• October: The Witan proclaim Edgar the Atheling king.
• November: William marches to Wallingford, buring and destroying as he goes. Archbishop Stigand gives in and submits.
• December: Edgar and the Anglo Saxon Thegns submit to William the Bastard at Berkhampstead, and now we must start to call him William the Conqueror. William is crowned William Ist on Christmas Day.  ... it is now.  

The companions of William the Conqueror

 There are 15 people who we are pretty sure were with William on his great adventure. Some of them gained massive rewards from their support. The nams we know are:

• Robert de Beaumont
• Eustace, Count of Boulogne
• William, 3rd Count of Évreux
• Geoffrey of Mortagne
• William FitzOsbern
• Aimeri, Viscount of Thouars
• Walter Giffard, Lord of Longueville
• Hugh de Montfort, Lord of Montfort-sur-Risle
• Ralph de Tosny
• Hugh de Montfort
• William de Warenne
• William Malet
• Odo, Bishop of Bayeux
• Turstin FitzRolf
• Engnulf de Laidgle

21 The Normans - a race unbridled

The Normans made a massive impact on Europe, not just England. They went on to establish a kingdom in Southern Italy, and lead the Crusades and the resulting state of Outremer. So the History of England looks at where they came from, with a brief history of Normandy before 1066

21 The Normans - a race unbridled

Beginnings - Rollo (846-931) and the settlement of Normandy

Charles the Simple, the King of France, managed to defeat Rollo at Chartres, but realised that the Vikings would be back. So he granted Rollo the land of Normandy in 911, on the promise that Rollo would defend the coast and convert to Christianity. And by and large that's what Rollo did.

The settlement of Normandy was not heavy, and was focussed around the coast, as the map shows. Rollo and his successors encouraged the Vikings to go native. Within a hundred years, the Normans were as French as anyone. 

William I Longsword (b. 893, Count of Normandy 931-942)

Rollo's son William had to fight to protect the new kingdom from the Kings of France who regreted their decision, and from jealous neighbours like the Counts of Flanders. In the end they got to him, when Arnulf of Flanders had William assasination in 942. But by that stage Normandy had grown from the gift of the Contentin and Avranches from Rudolph of France, and by William's mariage.

Richard I 'The Fearless' (b. 933, Duke of Normandy 942-996)

 A minority was always a dangerous time, so when William's assasination left 10 year old as his heir there was bound to be trouble. Louis IVth of France took advantage, walked in and threw Richard in prison. But 3 years later Richard escaped and enlisted the help of Hugh Capet, the count of Paris and founder of the Capetian dynasty. Hugh helped Richard back to the Ducal throne and Richard never looked back. His reign saw the start of the development of the famous Norman heavy cavalry and reform of the church. New religious foundations sprang up and by the time Richard died, no one would have imagined a world without Normandy - which had not been the case at the start of the reign. Richard was also the first to call himself Duke - and make it stick.

Richard II ('the Good', 996-1026) , Richard III (1026-1027) and Robert the Devil (1027-1035)

Richard II built on the work of his father, fostering the development of the church and maintaining his alliance with the Capetians. And on his death, the succession seemed assured through his son Richard. But Richard died suspiciously quickly. Now early death was not unusual in those days, but tomgies will wag and Robert, his brother, was tringly suspected of fratricide. None the less, Robert took over, and set off to have fun and build his wealth by plundering the church. And while he played, his  Barons helped themselves too - not just to church lands, but to Ducal powers as well. By the time the Pope stopped Robert's spree with the threat of excommunication, the damage was done, and his son would have to deal with the consequence of a very independent nobility. Perhaps by way of contrition, Robert went to the Holy Land on pilgrimmage 1034-5, where his ability to throw money around earned him the title of Robert the Magnificant. But he died on the way back.

William the Bastard (Duke, 1035 - 1087)

William was illegitimate and under age  when his father died, so he had to contend with a disputed succession. The turning point came in 1047 with the battle of Val es Dune, when Henry of  France helped his vassal William defeat his Barons. From then until the death of his rivals, Geoffry of Anjou and a disillusioned Henry of France, William continued to fight for his survival. But from 1060, William could finally go on the offensive, safe at home and ready to take on the invasion of England.