The History of England

Regnal Lists of Anglo Saxon England

Since I did the original post below, everyone got so enthusiastic that I've updated them a bit. The MOST exciting thing, probably the most exciting moment of my life so far, was that I learned when I hit CNTRL+ALT+& followed by A or AE I can produce a real Æsc. I had to go for a cold shower immediately. So now the chart has the Æsc rather than some poxy dipstick, dipthong thing. Secondly, I have now included the mythical antecedents to the historical kings - like Woden, but where we know it, the person each people talked about as their ancestor - the Mercians, for example, thought of themselves as the Icelingas, the people of Icel; the East Anglians though of themselves as the Wuffingas. After Wuffa, whom they thought was a hero. The Saxons thought he was a bit of a dog...(boom,tish!). And then finally I have added some continental types - the Franks mainly, but also the Bishops of Rome. 

So there you go - hope they are even better. 

"There I was lying in bed at 2.15am, not able to get to sleep because the bodyclock was messed up. As I lay there I said to myself, 'wouldn't it be brilliant to have a list of all the kings of the AS kingdoms so you could see at one glance who each of them was dealing with ant any one time?'

'Go back to sleep you dipstick', myself replied, 'you've got work in the morning'.

But it was just too tempting an idea, so this is the result. I think it's make a nice wall chart for the loo. Or keep it by the bed for when you read to read to get to sleep. Or frame it and put it in the sitting room. Whatever."

Also, since the all-encompassing one is rather difficult to read, I've split them up a bit further down. 

  

 

 

 

147 Women and Anglo Saxon England

Unaccustomed as I am to social and economic history...here is the first of a bit of a thread over the next few weeks and months about some social stuff, and indeed with a bit of a focus on women. Due to popular demand. We start of this thread with a look at the status and role of women in Anglo Saxon England.  

 

 

147 Women in Anglo Saxon England

 

A great book!

I have to honour my debt to Henrietta Leyser and her book on Medieval Women. Most of the podcast, and some following over the next few weeks, owe a vast amount to it. 

As it happens you can buy them through my wee Amazon bookshop. 

To buy from the UK, click on this link Henietta Leyser 'Medieval Women'

To buy from the UK, click on this link Henietta Leyser 'Medieval Women'

 

An Anglo Saxon Riddle

Here's that Riddle. Answer in the next episode, and please have a guess below in the comments - no searching the interweb!

I’m a wonderful thing, a joy to women,
to neighbors useful. I injure no one
who lives in a village save only my slayer.
I stand up high and steep over the bed;
underneath I’m shaggy. Sometimes ventures
a young and handsome  peasant’s daughter,
a maiden proud, to lay hold on me.
She seizes me, red, plunders my head,
fixes on me fast, feels straightway
what meeting me means when she thus approaches,
a curly-haired woman. Wet is that eye.

 

 

56 The History of Medieval Europe, Part 2

The Holy Roman Empire to the death of Barbarossa, the briefest of histories of Norway, Denmark and Spain, and the 4th Crusade. It's action packed. 

56 The History of Medieval Europe Part 2 rm

 

The Investiture Crisis - Gregory VII and Henry IVth

Hildebrand, or Gregory VIIth to use his Papal name, was a reformer and Pope between 1073 and 1085. He firmly believed that the church should be independent from the influence of the material world, and unlike other Popes before and after him he was not prepared to compromise. He believed that the Papacy should be free of the influence of the Emperor, and indeed superior. 

Henry IVth meanwhile was the descendant of Otto the Great. He believed in a system based on what he saw as the ancient right of the Roman Emperor to appoint the Pope. The system of government he inherited depended on him being able to choose churchmen he could trust to help him govern. He was utterly convinced in his right to 'invest' bishops and churchmen with the symbols of their office. 

At the same time Henry IVth had to struggle with opposition from within German, w hose Princes

fought to establish their independence and liberties within the rule of the Emperor. In the struggle's most dramatic moment, beset by rebels allied with Gregory, Henry camped outside Gregory's palace in Canossa, in the robes of a penitent and pleaded to  be accepted back into the Pope's favour. Gregory was forced to accept, and by so doing betrayed the rebels, who were then crushed by Henry. The Emperor established his own anti-Pope and ejected Gregory from Rome, who dies in exile in Sicily, lamenting

I have loved justice and hated iniquity - and therefore I die in exile

Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor, 1152 - 1190

Gregory thought he had lost - but in fact the long term victory was his. The Emperor's anti-pope was never accepted, and the idea of the Emperor's supremacy over the Pope lost. Despite the outward glory of Barbarossa's reign, in fact by the end of his reign the basis of the Emperor's power was sorely eroded. Frederick lost control of the northern Italian cities. he was forced himself to prostrate himself before Pope Alexander III. He held enormous power in Germany, but at the cost of a new deal with the German nobility that accepted that they were a closed, hereditary circle, with power over their own lands, while the Emperor remained elective. Under Emperors weaker than Barbarossa, the weakness of the Emperor's real power would be exposed. 

 

Medieval Spain and La Reconquista

Spain had been largely overrun by the Arabs by the 9th Century, leaving 3 small Christian states surviving in the north - Leon in the North West, Navarre in the north and Aragorn in the north east. 

By 1210, and the map shows, Spain was once again largely Christian, though far from completely. Despite periodic setbacks as new Caliphates tried to re-establish the old Islamic dominance, such as the Almoravids and Almohads, disunity among the Arab states allowed the kingdom of Castille to lead the fight back. The fall of Toledo in 1085 and victory at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 would prove decisive. By 1252, the last Muslim kingdom of Granada was a vassal of Castille, and would finally cease to exist in 1492.

Byzantium, the 4th Crusade, and the fall of Constantinople in 1204

After the death of Emperor Manuel Comnenos it is hard to find a Byzantine Emperor of any great talent. But the event which tore the heart out of the Empire came not from the East and the Islam world, but from the Christian west. 

The evil genius is Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice. Enrico uses the fee he is owed from transporting the Crusaders  to force the crusade away from the objective of Egypt to first recapture the city of Zara. Then Alexius Angelos, a man with a claim to the throne of Byzantium, and persuades the Crusaders to help him gain the throne - for a fee of course. But once in place, he changes his mind about the fee - having looked first at the state of the Imperial treasury. As a result, the Crusaders attacked and took Constantinople, and submitted it to the traditional 3 day sack. 

Here's a contemporary account which gives a flavour of the sacking: 

How shall I begin to tell of the deeds wrought by these nefarious men ! Alas, the images, which ought to have been adored, were trodden under foot ! Alas, the relics of the holy martyrs were thrown into unclean places ! Then was seen what one shudders to hear, namely, the divine body and blood of Christ was spilled upon the ground or thrown about. They snatched the precious reliquaries, thrust into their bosoms the ornaments which these contained, and used the broken remnants for pans and drinking cups,-precursors of Antichrist, authors and heralds of his nefarious deeds which we momentarily expect. Manifestly, indeed, by that race then, just as formerly, Christ was robbed and insulted and His garments were divided by lot; only one thing was lacking, that His side, pierced by a spear, should pour rivers of divine blood on the ground.

Nor can the violation of the Great Church be listened to with equanimity. For the sacred altar, formed of all kinds of precious materials and admired by the whole world, was broken into bits and distributed among the soldiers, as was all the other sacred wealth of so great and infinite splendor.

When the sacred vases and utensils of unsurpassable art and grace and rare material, and the fine silver, wrought with gold, which encircled the screen of the tribunal and the ambo, of admirable workmanship, and the door and many other ornaments, were to be borne away as booty, mules and saddled horses were led to the very sanctuary of the temple. Some of these which were unable to keep their footing on the splendid and slippery pavement, were stabbed when they fell, so that the sacred pavement was polluted with blood and filth.

For Venice it was a triumph - they captured the right to the trade of the Empire. For Byzantium it was a disaster. 

The Empire split into a small Latin Empire and several Greek Empires - as you can see from the map below. Although the Latin Empire lasts only 57 years, and is eventually reconquered, Byzantium never recovers its strength. 

 

55 The History of Medieval Europe, Part I

From Charles Martel and the battle of Tours in 732, through Charlemagne and Otto the Great, the first installment concentrates on France, Germany and Italy and takes us to the shores of Gregory VIIth.

55 The History of Medieval Europe Part 1 rm

 

The Battle of Tours, 732

It is hotly debated as to whether or not Charles Martel's victory over the Muslim armies in central France was the occasion that caused the Muslim tide to recede. Probably it's not the cause but the event that marks it, but how ever you look at it the victory of probably 30,000 Franks over 75,000 previously unstoppable Muslim forces was hugely significant. Martel had prepared and trained his soldiers for this event, and his victory founded his dynasty - the Carolingian dynasty - which led to Charles the Great, Charlemagne.

The Empire of Charlemagne

Charlemagne's Empire was a conscious attempt to re-create the glories of the Roman Empire of the west. Charlemagne put as much effort into reviving learning and spreading Christianity as he did into territorial expansion. None the less his Empire was huge, as the map shows (thanks to EB...). 

Charlemagne was crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo in 800. Charlemagne's view of this event was very much that his servant, the Pope, was adding his support to his kingship. Pope Leo was trying to establish that Emperors only became Emperors when the Pope said so. This is an argument that will run and run. 

Charlemagne becomes one of the touchstones of medieval Europe - just as he referred back to the Roman Empire,  so future kings would refer back to the glories of Charlemagne. 

Otto the Great and the Holy Roman Empire

After Charlemagne, his empire splits into three (see the small inset box map in map above). France, under  Charles the Bald and his descendants, fragments under the pressure of Viking raids and communication into a series of semi-independant states. The French king concentrates on the development of his own power within the Ile de France, and maintaining some lip service to their legal supremacy over the rest of the Western Franks. In the end, it's a strategy that pays handsome dividends under Phillip Augustus. 

The Eastern Franks choose a different route. Otto the Great took up the mantle of Charlemagne, and fought to maintain a new Roman, and Holy Empire. He defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld in 955, and finally put an end to the chaos. He brought the warring leaders of the German 'Stem Duchies under royal control. He chose a unique way of ruling this still huge and disparate empire. The Ottonian system relied on the church to be partners in ruling his empire. Prince Bishops would not try to establish dynasties, for example, to break away from the Empire. For over 100 years, Otto's system works beautifully, and his Empire dominates Germany and much of Italy. But it relied on control of church appointments and control of the Popes. Local churchmen, by and large, were happy enough - the Pope was not. 

 

 

49a Arrival of the House of Wessex video

My daughter and I thought we'd have a go at doing a video about the early period of the kingdom of Wessex. Someone at one point suggested I upload a photo of myself. This is too hideous a prospect, but there is a 1 second clip of my back walking into a crowd in this video - a special mention on the podcast goes to anyone who can spot who I am, and can explain why my trousers always look the way they do.

Cick here for The Arrival of the House of Wessex video on You Tube, or just view it below.

 

31a Anglo Saxon Questions - Church Conversion and Economy

Chris and Matt sent some interesting questions that take us back to Anglo Saxon England. So here's a free, supplementary episode. We talk about:

• How much did daily life really change when Anglo Saxon kingdoms converted to Christianity?
• What differences did the Norman Church bring to Anglo Saxon England?
• How did Alfred and Aethelred keep raising all those armies?
• How did Aethelred keep raising all that silver and gold for Danegeld?

31a Anglo Saxon Questions - Church conversion and Economy

 

 

24a The Anglo Saxon view of the outside world

The Anglo Saxons seem a very insular bunch - what was their view of the outside world, how much interaction did they have? A good deal more than we might suppose.

24a The Anglo Saxon view of the outside World

 

 

 

The summary is that Anglo Saxon England has a good deal of contact with the western European seaboard. And that its Kings had relationships as far afield as Rome and the Holy Roman Empire.

But it seems that they had relationships with the Islamic world too. This is a picture of an extraordinary coin - a coin issued by Offa of Mercia very late in the 8th Century for the Pope. It is a copy of an Islamic, Abbasid coin, with the inscription 'there is no god but allah alone’. Hopefully, the Pope couldn't read Arabic. And of course many English left England in 1066 to serve the Byzantine Emperor in the Varangian guard, to escape the Norman tyranny.

Here also is an 11th century Anglo Saxon map of the world. Louise C of the Historum Forum writes: 'A mappa mundi is a depiction of the world as a place of experiences, of human history, of notions and knowledge. It's more like an encyclopedia. It's certainly not - and was never intended to be - a chart to be followed by travellers.

More than likely, a mappa mundi would have been a conversation piece in a rich man's house. A fashionable - and expensive - ornament to prompt after-dinner discussion. For journeys people needed not maps but travel tineraries, and that is what they had.'

Once you get beyond Byzantium it's clear that even traders would have only hearsay to repeat. None the less, it's pretty clear that Anglo Saxon England was a good deal more connected than you might think.

Trade, and trade with the outside world

Trade was based around the local Burghs or Ports; Edward the Elder specifically ordered in his laws that all trade be done there - no doubt so that he could tax it. Trade would not always have been in coin; while English silver coins were relatively high quality, by no means everyone would have had access to coins, so trade in kind was often the way things were done.

And yet there would of course be lots of stuff not available in the neighbourhood, and Merchants took advantage of this. Merchants faced many obstacles; there was no credit - so all stock had to be bought up front. The roads were rubbish, so rivers were preferred where possible. If travelling by road, good protection was a must against the robbers and brigands.

Despite all of this, there is lots of evidence of trade throughout the period. By the 11th Century towns have grown; all numbers are very approximate, but London the biggest probably 10-12,000, York 8,000, Norwich and Lincoln 5,000, Thetford 4,000, Oxford 3,500. Coastal towns with a large amount of external trade - such as Ipswich and Southampton were probably about 1-1,500.

As to what exactly got traded with whom and in what quantity, the evidence is painfully slight. But here are a few things.

External trade

Good old Bede in the 8th Century talks about sending to Gaul for Glassmakers, and the Abbot of Monkwearmouth did the same in 756. There are over 300 glass items in graves from there period, which indicates considerable trade. Most glass came from the Northern Gaul or Rhineland, and there's a grave in Sussex with a vessel from the Eastern Mediterranean.

Swords also sometimes came from the Rhineland - Raedwald's sword at Sutton Hoo, for example. In the same burial, cowry shells, amethyst beads and bronze vessels from Coptic Egypt show similar evidence of widespread trade at this early point.

In the 8th Century, the quality of English coinage indicates strong external trade. Offa has a dispute with Charlemagne, and as a result Charlemagne temporarily banned English merchants from the ports of Northern Gaul, and Offa reciprocated. So clearly there's enough trade to make a ban painful. Later in the correspondance, Offa agreed to ensure that English woollen cloaks traded with France remained the same length - so we are exporting garments, then.

We know that trade with Scadninavia, Frisia and the Rhineland is strong throughout the period, from pottery items found in burials and quernstones. Frisian and Scandinavian traders were probably the biggest carriers of trade, but we do know that there were English carriers too - an 8th century charter exempts the Bishop of Worcester's two ships from duties, for example. And we now that the English had at least some share of trade with the Mediterranean. in 1027, Cnut negotiates hard with the Emperor and Pope to get a good deal for English traders.

What did England produce for home use and export?

• England produced Iron for use locally and probably abroad, from mines in the Forest of Dean and Kent.
• Cheese was exported to Flanders
• Pottery, especially in Stamford and Thetford
• Textiles were probably exported - those woollen cloaks, the skills that produced the Bayeux tapestry (made in England).
• Salt making was an important industry around the Wash, the coast of Sussex and in Cheshire
• Lead and silver) was produced in Derbyshire
• Fishing was important for many coastal towns - particularly Dunwich, Southwold and Yarmouth

The oldest and most obvious trade was in Slaves. It's not just the Vikings that raided England for slaves; the Anglo Saxons raided the celtish lands such as Wales and Cornwall and took slaves. Bristol was a centre for slave trading, as it was to be in it's later history, sending slaves to Ireland. William of Malmesbury wrote:

'You might well groan to see then long rows of young men and maidens whose beauty and youth might move the pity of the savage, bound together with cords, and brought to market to be sold.'

Slave trading was banned at the Council of Westminster in 1102. But it's clear that for the Anglo Saxons it would have been an important part of the their external trade.

The evidence that England was a wealthy trading nation is there in the vast gelds paid to the Danes, and in the continuingly high quality of the English coinage. But it's difficult to see more than glimpses of how that wealth was generated.

5 Egbert - and almost England

Egbert finally gets to be king of Wessex in 802. By the end of his reign, Wessex is the most powerful English nation. Is this, for the first time, a united England? The History of England podcast looks at how Wessex took over from Mercia to become the leading kingdom of England.

Click and play podcast: 5 Egbert - and Almost England

Download podcast 5 Egbert - and Almost England

Egbert, king of Wessex (902-839)

Egbert had to fight for his throne - and at first was beaten to the punch by Beohtric, who had Mercian support from Coenwulf, Offa's successor. It's very clear throughout the first Anglo Saxon centuries that there is no tradition of primogeniture - i.e. the pass of rule to the eldest son. Instead, it chose the best Atheling (member of the royal house) for the job.

But the years Egbert spent at Charlemagne's court probably did him good - and also probably gave him the support of Europe's most powerful leader. in 802 Egbert returned when Beohtric died and claimed his throne - and beat off an invasion from Mercia at the same time.

In Mercia, Coenwulf was having his own problem's maintaining Offa's empire, and this left Egbert free to extend Wessex still further into Dumonia. In 838, Wessex probably finally took over Cornwall - though that's a matter of some debate.

For 20+ years Egbert ruled with almost no comment from the Anglo Saxon Chronicle - no indication that here was a man who would transform the political map of England. And indeed the crisis was probably precipitated by Mercia, not Egbert, when in 825 they invaded Wessex, while Egbert struggled with his own problems in the South West.

The battle of Ellendun was a massive defeat for Mercia from which they never fully recovered. After his victory, Egbert went on the offensive, and established a hegemony over all the kingdoms of the southern English. And the submission of the Northumbrians at Dore in 829 gave him a (tenuous) claim to be the first king of all the English.

But Mercia soon established their independence, though not their former dominance.

Aethelwulf (king of Wessex 839-856)

Egbert's son was an intensely religious man. He may well have been a reluctant sucessor to his father, and later in his reign he took time off to visit reign - cand came back to find that his sone, Aethelbald, had tried to take over his kingdom. A rather remarkable accommodation was reached that allowed them both to stay in power.

Also during his time the intensity of Viking raid increased - and despite his reputation as a religious rather than warlike man, Aethelwulf won a big victory at Acleah Heath.

Aethelwulf's reign came right on the edge of the Viking Great Heathen Army. And at the end of his reign the writing was on the wall when the Vikings occupied the Isle of Sheppey - but that challenge was to belong to his 5 sons.

5a The Heptarchy: Anglo Saxon England to 800: A supplementary episode

A brief summary of the history of the other English nations, from the 5th century to 800.

5a The Heptarchy_ Anglo Saxon Englan

 

History of England

I felt guilty about ignoring the history of all the other Anglo Saxon nations. So here is a supplementary episode that (very briefly) looks at the development of Northumbria, Essex, East Anglia and Sussex up to 800.

Download Materials for Episode 5a

4 Offa and a Golden Age of Anglo Saxon England

Offa is a lost and forgotten English hero, who presided over a golden age of Anglo Saxon England. The History of England podcast covers the rise of Mercian supremacy,  culminating in the reign of Offa. 

4 Offa and a Golden Age of Anglo Sax

 

Penda, the last pagan warrior king (died 655)

Penda of Mercia resisted the spread of Christianity, and fought to establish the supremacy of the Mercian kingdom. To an extent he suceeded in the second, defeating the Northumbrians and Wessex. His eventual defeat at Winwaed did not undermine his real achievement - which was to draw together all the peoples of the midlands into one Mercian kingdom. It laid the foundation for its later supremacy.

Wulfhere (K. Mercia 655-675), Aethelred (K. Mercia 675 - 704), and Aethelbald (K. Mercia 716-757)

Penda's sons Wulfhere and Aethelred extended Mercia's control over the Anglo Saxon nations, defeating Northumbria and Kent. By the time we get to Aethelbald, Mercia is therefore the leading power in England, capable, for example of making sure that his favourite candidate, Cyneheard, became king of Wessex. Cyneheard's reign was almost as long as Aethelbald's and is marked by the first surviving example of Old English narrative prose in the description of his death. Aethelbald lived life in the fast lane, to the disgust of the church, but it caught up with him when in 757 he was murdered by his own bodyguard.

Offa of Mercia (K. Mercia, 757 - 796)

Offa had to fight for his throne, but within a year had seen off his rival Boernred. Offa's long reign is a golden age of Anglo Saxon England. The 8th century saw the flowering of English writing, and a cultural vitality that was the equal of anything in Europe. Offa established a hegemony over all of the Anglo Saxon kingdoms south of the Humber. He was a man who could speak to Charlemagne as an equal, and did so.

Like all Anglo Saxon Kings, Offa was deeply involved in the affairs of the Church, and briefly established an Archbishopric at Lichfield to rival Canterbury. He ran an organised and efficient state, able to build his 80 mile dyke along the border with Wales. He even at one stage styles himself Rex Anglorum; but generally referred to himself as King of the Mercians. But it was an early signal of the ambition to create a united English state.

Offa died before the great challenge of the Viking Age. But the earliest signs of trouble were there. Below is the 789 entry in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle:

‘ . . . came the first three ships of the northmen from Horthaland. The Reeve rode there, and meant to force them to the King’s dwelling, because he did not know what they were; and then he was killed. Those were the first ships of the Danish to seek out the lands of the English. ‘